One hundred forty-four years ago today, on April 6, 1862, Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston died during the bloody Battle of Shiloh. Wounded in the leg, Johnston did not seek medical attention quickly enough, and a severed artery caused him to bleed to death.
A Kentucky native, Johnston graduated from the United States Military Academy (like many generals of his day) and served in the American army. He fought in the Black Hawk War against Native Americans (which began 174 years ago, on April 6, 1832) and served in Texas during the Texas Revolution. He was the Republic of Texas' Secretary of War from 1838 to 1840. Johnston's next military assignment was the Mexican War, when he volunteered and fought at Monterrey. Johnston reentered the American army in 1849 and was the leader of the U.S. army's expedition against the Mormons in Utah.
When Texas seceded from the Union in 1861, Johnston resigned from the U.S. army and joined the Confederates. His experience and status made him the obvious choice for commanding the Confederate forces in the West. He formed a defensive line, but the Union steadily pushed it back. Johnston regrouped his forces at Corinth, Mississippi, and prepared to attack General Ulysses S. Grant's forces.
The Confederates ambushed the Union at Shiloh in Tennessee. The Federal forces were surprised, but they recovered and fought back viciously. The Battle of Shiloh was the single bloodiest battle of the war, and among the South's casualties was General Johnston, who died on the battle's first day.
Albert Sidney Johnston was considered one of the South's greatest generals. His death brought great mourning to the South; few generals were as competent as the aged Johnston, who was one of the oldest officers during the war. General Johnston's loss was a terrible blow to the Confederate cause, and he was never replaced by an equally competent commander in the West.
Sources: Columbia Encylopedia, The History Channel Website, Wikipedia
Thursday, April 06, 2006
Wednesday, April 05, 2006
Marshal Tito (1892 - 1980)
It's been 61 years since Marshal Tito signed a quasi-alliance with the Soviet Union. On April 5, 1945, when World War II was in its final hours, Tito signed the treaty on behalf of Yugoslavia, setting in stone that nation's status as Soviet sphere of influence.
Josip Broz was born in 1892, of Croatian stock. He fought for the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution of 1917 and returned to Croatia after the war. Broz rose to be one of the most influential leader of Yugoslavia and was charged with reorganizing the Yugoslav Communist Party during the late 1930s.
In 1941, Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia and took control of the government. Broz assumed the alias Tito and headed the Yugoslav resistance to Axis occupation. His resistance force was composed of several different political affiliations, so there were clashes between opposing ideologies. Tito was responsible for the execution of Draza Mihajlovic, the other leader of Yugoslav resistance forces and Tito's main opponent for power. In an instance of strange bedfellows, Great Britain and the United States supported the self-proclaimed Communist in his fight against the Nazis.
In 1945, Germany was defeated, and Tito solidified his rule as leader of Yugoslavia. He was elected president of the Republic of Yugoslavia in November 1945, and became practically a dictator for the next 35 years.
Tito transformed Yugoslavia into a Communist state with a controlled economy. He brutally suppressed opposition to his rule with a secret police force. He did a remarkable thing, however, when he broke with the Soviets in a quarrel over correct Communist ideologies and became an independent Communist. Tito was one of the three main leaders of the Nonaligned Nations (the others were Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser and India's Jawaharlal Nehru), which claimed neutrality during the Cold War, refusing to support either side.
Despite proclaiming Yugoslavia's neutrality, Tito had to deal with the Soviet Union due to its close proximity. Relations with the Soviets were love-hate; sometimes the two nations got along, sometimes they did not. Tito opposed the Soviet crackdown of Alexander Dubcek's liberalization of Czechoslovakia's economy known as the Prague Spring.
Tito was reelected President in 1953, and in 1963 he was proclaimed President for Life. Domestically, Tito began to face growing tensions between the different ethnicities in Yugoslavia: Croats, Serbs, Albanians, and Slovenes were among the different ethnic groups that threatened to split the nation apart. Tito suppressed civil liberties, especially among intellectuals.
Marshal Josip Broz Tito died in 1980 at the age of 88 years. He had hoped to quell the uneasiness among the different ethnic groups, but his death proved to be the death knell for the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Only a decade later, the country would erupt into violent civil war, complete with ethnic genocides and other atrocities. Tito's dream of a unified Yugoslavia was impossible to realize: the nation could only live within Tito, under Tito; when he died, his hopes for a unified Yugoslav republic died with him.
Sources: The History Channel Website, Encyclopedia.com
Josip Broz was born in 1892, of Croatian stock. He fought for the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution of 1917 and returned to Croatia after the war. Broz rose to be one of the most influential leader of Yugoslavia and was charged with reorganizing the Yugoslav Communist Party during the late 1930s.
In 1941, Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia and took control of the government. Broz assumed the alias Tito and headed the Yugoslav resistance to Axis occupation. His resistance force was composed of several different political affiliations, so there were clashes between opposing ideologies. Tito was responsible for the execution of Draza Mihajlovic, the other leader of Yugoslav resistance forces and Tito's main opponent for power. In an instance of strange bedfellows, Great Britain and the United States supported the self-proclaimed Communist in his fight against the Nazis.
In 1945, Germany was defeated, and Tito solidified his rule as leader of Yugoslavia. He was elected president of the Republic of Yugoslavia in November 1945, and became practically a dictator for the next 35 years.
Tito transformed Yugoslavia into a Communist state with a controlled economy. He brutally suppressed opposition to his rule with a secret police force. He did a remarkable thing, however, when he broke with the Soviets in a quarrel over correct Communist ideologies and became an independent Communist. Tito was one of the three main leaders of the Nonaligned Nations (the others were Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser and India's Jawaharlal Nehru), which claimed neutrality during the Cold War, refusing to support either side.
Despite proclaiming Yugoslavia's neutrality, Tito had to deal with the Soviet Union due to its close proximity. Relations with the Soviets were love-hate; sometimes the two nations got along, sometimes they did not. Tito opposed the Soviet crackdown of Alexander Dubcek's liberalization of Czechoslovakia's economy known as the Prague Spring.
Tito was reelected President in 1953, and in 1963 he was proclaimed President for Life. Domestically, Tito began to face growing tensions between the different ethnicities in Yugoslavia: Croats, Serbs, Albanians, and Slovenes were among the different ethnic groups that threatened to split the nation apart. Tito suppressed civil liberties, especially among intellectuals.
Marshal Josip Broz Tito died in 1980 at the age of 88 years. He had hoped to quell the uneasiness among the different ethnic groups, but his death proved to be the death knell for the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Only a decade later, the country would erupt into violent civil war, complete with ethnic genocides and other atrocities. Tito's dream of a unified Yugoslavia was impossible to realize: the nation could only live within Tito, under Tito; when he died, his hopes for a unified Yugoslav republic died with him.
Sources: The History Channel Website, Encyclopedia.com
Tuesday, April 04, 2006
Yamamoto Isoroku (1884 - 1943)
Today marks the one hundred twenty-fourth birthday of Yamamoto Isoroku., born on April 4, 1884. A Japanese military officer, Yamamoto is remembered for conceiving and carrying out the plan to bomb Pearl Harbor during World War II.
Yamamoto worked for the Japanese navy as a representative to the United States during the mid-to-late 1920s. From 1926 to 1941, Yamamoto rose up the Japanese military ranks, becoming the commander in chief of Japan's combined navy and air forces in 1941.
In 1941, Japanese relations with the United States were stressed. Yamamoto advised against starting a war with America, but the man with the final say, Tojo Hideki, decided to fight. Yamamoto then argued that the only chance of victory was through a crippling surprise attack on the United States Navy. Yamamoto also issued an ominous prediction for Japan: If Japan did not defeat the U.S. within one year, Japan would fall.
Yamamoto's careful planning of the Pearl Harbor attack (Pearl Harbor was a key U.S. Naval base) resulted in a successful strike. Over 3,400 Americans lost their lives, 180 U.S. aircraft were wrecked, and the United States battleship fleet experienced substantial damage; all of this occurred within half an hour on December 7, 1941 (The History Channel Website).
Yamamoto became a hero in Japan, but his glory was short-lived. America, seeking to settle the score, tracked him down in an airplane over Bougainville Island in the Pacific in 1943. Yamamoto met his death in the ambush as his plane was shot from the sky.
Upon his death, Japan lost one of its greatest strategists. According to the History Channel Website, "Yamamoto died having been right about two things: the effectiveness of aircraft carriers in long-range naval attacks and that Japan would lose a drawn-out struggle with the United States" (The History Channel Website).
Yamamoto's legacy is tainted by Japan's defeat and his role in planning the Pearl Harbor attack. Today, he is viewed as a villain in many World War II Pacific Theater films.
Sources: The History Channel Website
Yamamoto worked for the Japanese navy as a representative to the United States during the mid-to-late 1920s. From 1926 to 1941, Yamamoto rose up the Japanese military ranks, becoming the commander in chief of Japan's combined navy and air forces in 1941.
In 1941, Japanese relations with the United States were stressed. Yamamoto advised against starting a war with America, but the man with the final say, Tojo Hideki, decided to fight. Yamamoto then argued that the only chance of victory was through a crippling surprise attack on the United States Navy. Yamamoto also issued an ominous prediction for Japan: If Japan did not defeat the U.S. within one year, Japan would fall.
Yamamoto's careful planning of the Pearl Harbor attack (Pearl Harbor was a key U.S. Naval base) resulted in a successful strike. Over 3,400 Americans lost their lives, 180 U.S. aircraft were wrecked, and the United States battleship fleet experienced substantial damage; all of this occurred within half an hour on December 7, 1941 (The History Channel Website).
Yamamoto became a hero in Japan, but his glory was short-lived. America, seeking to settle the score, tracked him down in an airplane over Bougainville Island in the Pacific in 1943. Yamamoto met his death in the ambush as his plane was shot from the sky.
Upon his death, Japan lost one of its greatest strategists. According to the History Channel Website, "Yamamoto died having been right about two things: the effectiveness of aircraft carriers in long-range naval attacks and that Japan would lose a drawn-out struggle with the United States" (The History Channel Website).
Yamamoto's legacy is tainted by Japan's defeat and his role in planning the Pearl Harbor attack. Today, he is viewed as a villain in many World War II Pacific Theater films.
Sources: The History Channel Website
Monday, April 03, 2006
The Death of Jesse James
One hundred twenty-four years ago, on April 3, 1882, legendary Western outlaw Jesse James was betrayed by gang member Robert Ford. While adjusting an off-kilter picture on a wall in his house, Jesse James was shot in the back of the head and fell to the ground dead.
Born in 1847 in Missouri, Jesse James was a farmboy. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Jesse's older brother Frank (born 1843) joined the Confederate Army. Jesse later joined a band of quasi-outlaws headed by William Quantrill. When the war ended, Jesse's band surrendered, but the Federal troops fired upon it anyway, and Jesse was wounded.
This incident helped spur Jesse James's hatred for the Federal government. He and his brother Frank met Cole Younger during the war, and after the surrender Jesse formed a gang which included brother Frank as well as Cole Younger and his three brothers. Before the Younger brothers joined the gang, Jesse and Frank headed a bank robbery in 1866. Thus was the beginning of a legend.
Jesse's gang were bank robbers, highwaymen, store robbers, and stagecoach hold-ups. In other words, they did everything that the classic Western outlaw is portrayed as doing in popular culture. Jesse's gang even popularized robbing trains, which shocked authorities due to the crime's boldness.
Jesse's gang was nearly decimated on September 7, 1876. While attempting to rob a bank in Northfield, Minnesota, Jesse's gang was discovered by the townspeople, who took up arms. Only Frank and Jesse James escaped; the Youngers were captured, and three gang members met their deaths.
Jesse and Frank returned to Missouri and formed a new gang, provoking a warrant from Governor Crittenden. It was this "Wanted: Dead or Alive" warrant (with promise of a reward) that led Bob Ford to shoot Jesse James. Jesse had yet to see his 35th birthday.
Frank James surrendered shortly thereafter. At Frank's trials (which occurred in three different states), he was acquitted of murder, bank robbery, and armed robbery charges, a testament to his popularity with the majority of citizens in those areas. Frank James lived out his final years near the town of his birth, dying in 1915 at the age of 72, thirty-three years after his brother's murder.
In his day, Jesse James was both revered and hated. Many lower class citizens viewed him as a Robin Hood-type figure, robbing from the rich and giving to the poor. Indeed, Jesse had good PR skills, and it was this very belief that he cultivated by using persecution as his excuse for crime. Native Americans saw him as a hero due to his ability to escape Federal authorities (who were persecuting the Native Americans at the same time).
Today, James is a legend. Whether one views him as a hero or a petty criminal (the truth probably lies somewhere in between), one thing is for certain: Jesse James will continue to live on in our romanticism of the Old West.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Born in 1847 in Missouri, Jesse James was a farmboy. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Jesse's older brother Frank (born 1843) joined the Confederate Army. Jesse later joined a band of quasi-outlaws headed by William Quantrill. When the war ended, Jesse's band surrendered, but the Federal troops fired upon it anyway, and Jesse was wounded.
This incident helped spur Jesse James's hatred for the Federal government. He and his brother Frank met Cole Younger during the war, and after the surrender Jesse formed a gang which included brother Frank as well as Cole Younger and his three brothers. Before the Younger brothers joined the gang, Jesse and Frank headed a bank robbery in 1866. Thus was the beginning of a legend.
Jesse's gang were bank robbers, highwaymen, store robbers, and stagecoach hold-ups. In other words, they did everything that the classic Western outlaw is portrayed as doing in popular culture. Jesse's gang even popularized robbing trains, which shocked authorities due to the crime's boldness.
Jesse's gang was nearly decimated on September 7, 1876. While attempting to rob a bank in Northfield, Minnesota, Jesse's gang was discovered by the townspeople, who took up arms. Only Frank and Jesse James escaped; the Youngers were captured, and three gang members met their deaths.
Jesse and Frank returned to Missouri and formed a new gang, provoking a warrant from Governor Crittenden. It was this "Wanted: Dead or Alive" warrant (with promise of a reward) that led Bob Ford to shoot Jesse James. Jesse had yet to see his 35th birthday.
Frank James surrendered shortly thereafter. At Frank's trials (which occurred in three different states), he was acquitted of murder, bank robbery, and armed robbery charges, a testament to his popularity with the majority of citizens in those areas. Frank James lived out his final years near the town of his birth, dying in 1915 at the age of 72, thirty-three years after his brother's murder.
In his day, Jesse James was both revered and hated. Many lower class citizens viewed him as a Robin Hood-type figure, robbing from the rich and giving to the poor. Indeed, Jesse had good PR skills, and it was this very belief that he cultivated by using persecution as his excuse for crime. Native Americans saw him as a hero due to his ability to escape Federal authorities (who were persecuting the Native Americans at the same time).
Today, James is a legend. Whether one views him as a hero or a petty criminal (the truth probably lies somewhere in between), one thing is for certain: Jesse James will continue to live on in our romanticism of the Old West.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica
History Repeats Itself...Like Clockwork
Today, April 3, 2006, national news is reporting that 27 people were killed in tornadic storms across the Midwest. Tragedies such as these are not uncommon, but the events that happened in the Midwest 32 years ago today, on April 3, 1974, were far from common. In fact, they were downright horrifying.
On April 3, 1974, a large weather system over the Midwest produced 148 tornadoes in a mere twenty-four hours, an outrageous number of twisters for one system and by far the record. The History Channel sums it up best: "On this day in 1974, 148 tornadoes hit the United States heartland within 16 hours. By the time the deadly storm ended, 330 people had died. This was the largest grouping of tornadoes recorded in its time, affecting 11 states and Ontario, Canada. At any one moment during the storm, there were as many as 15 separate tornadoes touching the ground. " (The History Channel Website)
The system began its path of destruction over the Ohio River Valley, and Illinois was the first state hit by a tornado that afternoon. The system was not only unusual in the number of tornadoes it produced, but also in the number of severe tornadoes it created: According to the History Channel, 22 F4 tornadoes and 6 F5 tornadoes resulted from the system.
Among the hardest-hit areas were the towns of Xenia, OH and Brandenburg, KY. Over thirty people died in each town, and thousands were injured and left homeless. By the time the "Super Outbreak of '74" had ended, six states were declared Federal Disaster Areas.
The events that occurred on April 3, 2006 were tragedies, but they pale in comparison with that terrifying day in 1974.
Sources: The History Channel Website
Other Sites of Interest: April 3, 1974 - The Tornado Super Outbreak
On April 3, 1974, a large weather system over the Midwest produced 148 tornadoes in a mere twenty-four hours, an outrageous number of twisters for one system and by far the record. The History Channel sums it up best: "On this day in 1974, 148 tornadoes hit the United States heartland within 16 hours. By the time the deadly storm ended, 330 people had died. This was the largest grouping of tornadoes recorded in its time, affecting 11 states and Ontario, Canada. At any one moment during the storm, there were as many as 15 separate tornadoes touching the ground. " (The History Channel Website)
The system began its path of destruction over the Ohio River Valley, and Illinois was the first state hit by a tornado that afternoon. The system was not only unusual in the number of tornadoes it produced, but also in the number of severe tornadoes it created: According to the History Channel, 22 F4 tornadoes and 6 F5 tornadoes resulted from the system.
Among the hardest-hit areas were the towns of Xenia, OH and Brandenburg, KY. Over thirty people died in each town, and thousands were injured and left homeless. By the time the "Super Outbreak of '74" had ended, six states were declared Federal Disaster Areas.
The events that occurred on April 3, 2006 were tragedies, but they pale in comparison with that terrifying day in 1974.
Sources: The History Channel Website
Other Sites of Interest: April 3, 1974 - The Tornado Super Outbreak
Sunday, April 02, 2006
Leon Gambetta (1838 - 1882)
Born on April 2, 1838, Leon Gambetta would become one of France's great patriots during the final half of the 1800s.
Gambetta was trained to be a lawyer. He opposed Emperor Napoleon III's empire and gained election to the Chamber of Deputies in 1869. Napoleon III's government fell in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War and Gambetta took over the temporary provisional government.
Gambetta opposed the German occupation of France, setting up a national defense to push the Germans out. He is remembered for a bizarre incident in which he escaped Paris in a hot air balloon after fear of a revolution in the French capital.
Gambetta returned and tried to oppose Otto von Bismarck's terms on France, but was forced to resign, and France capitulated to Germany. Leon Gambetta retired from politics briefly, but returned in 1871 to help set up the French Third Republic.
Gambetta tried to compromise with both the conservative monarchists and the liberal republicans. He helped set up a constitution in 1875. Gambetta favored a republican form of government, and he opposed the strong Roman Catholic influence over France.
In 1881, Gambetta was appointed French premire. Gambetta tried to bring together rival factions in the government, enact electoral reforms, and strengthen the executive branch of the French government, but his efforts proved futile. Gambetta died in 1882.
Today, Leon Gambetta is remembered for his French patriotism, and he is revered by the French people.
Sources: Columbia Encyclopedia, Wikipedia
Gambetta was trained to be a lawyer. He opposed Emperor Napoleon III's empire and gained election to the Chamber of Deputies in 1869. Napoleon III's government fell in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War and Gambetta took over the temporary provisional government.
Gambetta opposed the German occupation of France, setting up a national defense to push the Germans out. He is remembered for a bizarre incident in which he escaped Paris in a hot air balloon after fear of a revolution in the French capital.
Gambetta returned and tried to oppose Otto von Bismarck's terms on France, but was forced to resign, and France capitulated to Germany. Leon Gambetta retired from politics briefly, but returned in 1871 to help set up the French Third Republic.
Gambetta tried to compromise with both the conservative monarchists and the liberal republicans. He helped set up a constitution in 1875. Gambetta favored a republican form of government, and he opposed the strong Roman Catholic influence over France.
In 1881, Gambetta was appointed French premire. Gambetta tried to bring together rival factions in the government, enact electoral reforms, and strengthen the executive branch of the French government, but his efforts proved futile. Gambetta died in 1882.
Today, Leon Gambetta is remembered for his French patriotism, and he is revered by the French people.
Sources: Columbia Encyclopedia, Wikipedia
Why Soviet Communism Failed
So far, all of my articles have been purely historical. However, with this article I intend to establish my views concerning the reasons that communism fell in the old Union of Soviet Socialist Republics:
- Communism assumes that all individuals will work to their fullest potential without any incentive to do so. When people under the Soviet government realized that they received the same government-regulated wage no matter how hard they worked, they worked less than efficiently.
- The Soviet Communist government spent too much money producing military goods for the escalating Cold War and less on consumer goods.
- The consumer goods produced by the Soviet-regulated industries lacked variety and were of lesser quality than goods produced in a market economy with competition.
- Communism assumes that all individuals will work to their fullest potential without any incentive to do so. When people under the Soviet government realized that they received the same government-regulated wage no matter how hard they worked, they worked less than efficiently.
- The Soviet Communist government spent too much money producing military goods for the escalating Cold War and less on consumer goods.
- The consumer goods produced by the Soviet-regulated industries lacked variety and were of lesser quality than goods produced in a market economy with competition.
- Communism champions the equality of everyone. However, as George Orwell said in Animal House, "All animals are created equal, but some are more equal than others." The Communst government of the Soviet Union had individuals that had great power, including the Politburo members. These leaders proved to be both the failure of Soviet Communism and a source of hypocrisy between Soviet Communism and Marxism.
Soviet Communism originated with the creation of the Soviet Union under Vladimir I. Lenin, whose philosophy was similar to the Communism first described by Karl Marx. However, he made several alterations to Marx's ideas, creating a separate form of Communism known as Leninism. Stalin helped solidify the gap between Marxism and Soviet Communism and set in stone the bureaucracy that proved to be both the failure of Communism and a hypocritical moral paradox.
Sources: Personal knowledge
Saturday, April 01, 2006
A Crook Named George
United States General George Crook died 116 years ago last month, on March 21, 1890. Crook served in the American Civil War for the Union, but he made his name in the Indian Wars that occurred in the latter half of the 1800s.
Crook was born in 1829 near Dayton, Ohio. He was a lackluster student at West Point, but still served in the Civil War for the Union. He was present at Second Bull Run, Antietam, Chickamauga, and the campaign in the Shenandoah Valley.
In 1873, Crook attained the rank of brigadier general. He served in the Federal relocation of the Apaches and the Sioux. In the 1880s, Crook was in charge of rounding up the Apaches in Mexico, who were led by Geronimo. The Apaches proved hard to work with, with Geronimo getting away, but Crook succeeded in placing 500 Native Americans in a reservation (Encyclopaedia Britannica).
General Crook championed the rights of the Native Americans in his final years. He was known as a man of compromise and understanding to the Indians, and, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "General William Tecumseh Sherman called him the best of the Indian fighters and managers" (Encyclopaedia Britannica). Crook died in 1890, leaving behind a legacy of conciliation with the Native Americans.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia
Crook was born in 1829 near Dayton, Ohio. He was a lackluster student at West Point, but still served in the Civil War for the Union. He was present at Second Bull Run, Antietam, Chickamauga, and the campaign in the Shenandoah Valley.
In 1873, Crook attained the rank of brigadier general. He served in the Federal relocation of the Apaches and the Sioux. In the 1880s, Crook was in charge of rounding up the Apaches in Mexico, who were led by Geronimo. The Apaches proved hard to work with, with Geronimo getting away, but Crook succeeded in placing 500 Native Americans in a reservation (Encyclopaedia Britannica).
General Crook championed the rights of the Native Americans in his final years. He was known as a man of compromise and understanding to the Indians, and, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "General William Tecumseh Sherman called him the best of the Indian fighters and managers" (Encyclopaedia Britannica). Crook died in 1890, leaving behind a legacy of conciliation with the Native Americans.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia
Friday, March 31, 2006
Perry and American Imperialism
One hundred fifty-two years ago, on March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry signed the treaty that opened Japan's doors to America, allowing for trade between the two nations. Commodore Perry's actions were an example of early American imperialism.
Born in 1794 in Rhode Island, Matthew Calbraith Perry served in the War of 1812 but saw very little action. He rose up the naval ranks from the 1820s to the 1840s, ultimately attaining the rank of commodore. Perry was the commanding officer onboard the U.S.S. Fulton, the first steamboat possessed by the United States Navy.
Perry played a role in the Mexican War of 1846-1848. In 1852, President Millard Fillmore charged Commodore Perry with leading a mission to Japan, with the objective of coaxing Japan to open its doors to American diplomacy. For hundreds of years, Japan had practiced an isolationist policy, refusing to associate with any foreigners.
Perry studied the situation in Japan, and concluded that the United States would probably have to intimidate Japan into submission. He sailed into a Japanese harbor with a superior U.S. Navy on July 8, 1853. Japan was initially uncooperative, demanding that the Navy leave Japan, but Perry threatened to use force to open diplomatic doors. Finally, realizing that resistance was futile, Japan agreed to draft a treaty with the U.S.
The Japanese shogun (leader) knew that Western military might was superior, so Japan stalled for time while souping up its navy. However, Commodore Perry returned to Japan in 1854 and finalized the treaty, which was quite one-sided for the United States: American shipwrecked sailors were guaranteed civilized treatment by the Japanese, and the United States was given access to two refueling sites in Japan. The shogun lost power due to his inability to stop the American influence in Japan. The United States' actions led the way for other Western nations to sign treaties with Japan as well.
As for Perry, he became quite famous in America, and was considered an expert authority on the Orient. As Encyclopaedia Britanica says, "Perry stressed the danger of British and Russian expansion and urged a more active U.S. role in the Orient. He specifically recommended the acquisition of island bases in the Pacific to assure U.S. military and commercial superiority in the area, but the government was not ready to act on these proposals for roughly half a century" (Encyclopaedia Britannica).
Commodore Matthew Perry died in 1858. His actions towards Japan opened Japan to the international scene and can be seen as the origin of 20th Century Japanese imperialism, a key cause of World War II nearly a century after Perry entered a Japanese bay.
Sources: Wikipedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica
Born in 1794 in Rhode Island, Matthew Calbraith Perry served in the War of 1812 but saw very little action. He rose up the naval ranks from the 1820s to the 1840s, ultimately attaining the rank of commodore. Perry was the commanding officer onboard the U.S.S. Fulton, the first steamboat possessed by the United States Navy.
Perry played a role in the Mexican War of 1846-1848. In 1852, President Millard Fillmore charged Commodore Perry with leading a mission to Japan, with the objective of coaxing Japan to open its doors to American diplomacy. For hundreds of years, Japan had practiced an isolationist policy, refusing to associate with any foreigners.
Perry studied the situation in Japan, and concluded that the United States would probably have to intimidate Japan into submission. He sailed into a Japanese harbor with a superior U.S. Navy on July 8, 1853. Japan was initially uncooperative, demanding that the Navy leave Japan, but Perry threatened to use force to open diplomatic doors. Finally, realizing that resistance was futile, Japan agreed to draft a treaty with the U.S.
The Japanese shogun (leader) knew that Western military might was superior, so Japan stalled for time while souping up its navy. However, Commodore Perry returned to Japan in 1854 and finalized the treaty, which was quite one-sided for the United States: American shipwrecked sailors were guaranteed civilized treatment by the Japanese, and the United States was given access to two refueling sites in Japan. The shogun lost power due to his inability to stop the American influence in Japan. The United States' actions led the way for other Western nations to sign treaties with Japan as well.
As for Perry, he became quite famous in America, and was considered an expert authority on the Orient. As Encyclopaedia Britanica says, "Perry stressed the danger of British and Russian expansion and urged a more active U.S. role in the Orient. He specifically recommended the acquisition of island bases in the Pacific to assure U.S. military and commercial superiority in the area, but the government was not ready to act on these proposals for roughly half a century" (Encyclopaedia Britannica).
Commodore Matthew Perry died in 1858. His actions towards Japan opened Japan to the international scene and can be seen as the origin of 20th Century Japanese imperialism, a key cause of World War II nearly a century after Perry entered a Japanese bay.
Sources: Wikipedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica
Thursday, March 30, 2006
Hero of Mexico
Mexican hero Benito Juarez was born two hundred years ago, on March 21, 1806. He fought the French occupation of Mexico in the 1860s and became Mexico's only full-blooded Native American president.
Born into poverty, Juarez lost both parents as a toddler. He grew up working in fields, but his intelligence allowed him to climb the social ladder, and Juarez became a lawyer. He served as the Governor of Oaxaca, one of Mexico's provinces. Due to his criticism of Mexico's dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Juarez had to flee Mexico. He moved to Louisiana until Santa Anna lost power, then returned to Mexico.
A civil war broke out between conservatives and liberals in Mexico, and Juarez led the liberals to victory by capturing the capital of Mexico City. In 1861, Juarez was elected Mexico's President. Realizing Mexico's financial state was in a shambles, Juarez stopped all payment of foreign debts. Many European nations reacted angrily; France under Napoleon III invaded Mexico. The Battle of Puebla, the first battle and a victory for the Mexicans, is celebrated as Cinco de Mayo today. But in 1863, Juarez had to retreat, and in 1864 Napoleon set up a new government.
Napoleon III placed Maximilian in charge of Mexico. Juarez and his forces fought against this French puppet emperor, despite Maximilian's goodwill gestures toward Juarez. Maximilian himself was sympathetic of Juarez and his liberal allies, but Juarez refused to quit fighting because he did not believe in living under a monarch.
Napoleon III had taken advantage of the American Civil War when invading Mexico, as the United States was too busy fighting within to invoke the Monroe Doctrine. In 1865, the Civil War was over, and France decided it was time to pull out in 1866. Maximilian was left to fend for himself, but his forces were defeated, and he was captured and executed in 1867, despite pleas from Europe to let him live. Juarez was the man who allowed the sentence to commence.
Re-elected Mexico's President in 1867 and 1871, Juarez spent his time fighting political opponents and would-be revolutionaries. Juarez died in 1872.
Today, Juarez is remembered as a hero of democracy. He refused to accept any form of government less than a republic, and he fought monarchy in his home country. Juarez instituted reforms that brought equal rights to Native Americans, weakened the Roman Catholic Church's influence in Mexico's government, and, most importantly, kept his nation independent by fighting the French. Juarez's death led to political instability in Mexico. The rise of dictator Porfirio Diaz in 1876 led to an era of political corruption and assassinations, and Diaz's ouster in 1910 marked the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until the 1920s.
Sources: Wikipedia
Born into poverty, Juarez lost both parents as a toddler. He grew up working in fields, but his intelligence allowed him to climb the social ladder, and Juarez became a lawyer. He served as the Governor of Oaxaca, one of Mexico's provinces. Due to his criticism of Mexico's dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Juarez had to flee Mexico. He moved to Louisiana until Santa Anna lost power, then returned to Mexico.
A civil war broke out between conservatives and liberals in Mexico, and Juarez led the liberals to victory by capturing the capital of Mexico City. In 1861, Juarez was elected Mexico's President. Realizing Mexico's financial state was in a shambles, Juarez stopped all payment of foreign debts. Many European nations reacted angrily; France under Napoleon III invaded Mexico. The Battle of Puebla, the first battle and a victory for the Mexicans, is celebrated as Cinco de Mayo today. But in 1863, Juarez had to retreat, and in 1864 Napoleon set up a new government.
Napoleon III placed Maximilian in charge of Mexico. Juarez and his forces fought against this French puppet emperor, despite Maximilian's goodwill gestures toward Juarez. Maximilian himself was sympathetic of Juarez and his liberal allies, but Juarez refused to quit fighting because he did not believe in living under a monarch.
Napoleon III had taken advantage of the American Civil War when invading Mexico, as the United States was too busy fighting within to invoke the Monroe Doctrine. In 1865, the Civil War was over, and France decided it was time to pull out in 1866. Maximilian was left to fend for himself, but his forces were defeated, and he was captured and executed in 1867, despite pleas from Europe to let him live. Juarez was the man who allowed the sentence to commence.
Re-elected Mexico's President in 1867 and 1871, Juarez spent his time fighting political opponents and would-be revolutionaries. Juarez died in 1872.
Today, Juarez is remembered as a hero of democracy. He refused to accept any form of government less than a republic, and he fought monarchy in his home country. Juarez instituted reforms that brought equal rights to Native Americans, weakened the Roman Catholic Church's influence in Mexico's government, and, most importantly, kept his nation independent by fighting the French. Juarez's death led to political instability in Mexico. The rise of dictator Porfirio Diaz in 1876 led to an era of political corruption and assassinations, and Diaz's ouster in 1910 marked the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until the 1920s.
Sources: Wikipedia
Seward's Folly
One-hundred thirty-nine years ago today, on March 30, 1867, Secretary of State William H. Seward finalized the purchase of the territory of Alaska from Russia. At the time, the American public scoffed at the seemingly-outrageous purchase; no one could see how Alaska was worth the two cents an acre that was paid, especially considering that the territory was too cold to populate heavily. The event became known as Seward's Folly and President Johnson's Polar Bear Garden.
William Henry Seward was born in 1801 in New York. He rose through the state legislature and appeared as a national political figure in 1849, when he was elected as a Senator, serving until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. Seward was a staunch Whig, joining the Republican Party when the Whigs self-destructed in the late 1850s.
When the Civil War began, President Lincoln awarded his fellow Whig with an appointment as Secretary of State. Seward's activities during the war were questionable; he created a secret police force that arrested thousands of American citizens who Seward thought might instigate further rebellion in the Federal Union, especially in Maryland. It was through this police force that Lincoln gained criticism for suspending habeas corpus, or the right for a citizen to hear why he or she has been imprisoned and what the charges are.
On April 9, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth. That same night, a co-conspirator sneaked into Seward's house and stabbed him numerous times. Seward survived, and continued to serve as Secretary of State until 1869.
Seward died in 1872. If he had lived long enough, he would have had the last laugh about Alaska: Nearly a quarter century after his death, gold was discovered in Alaska, in 1896.
Sources: Wikipedia, Wikipedia
William Henry Seward was born in 1801 in New York. He rose through the state legislature and appeared as a national political figure in 1849, when he was elected as a Senator, serving until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. Seward was a staunch Whig, joining the Republican Party when the Whigs self-destructed in the late 1850s.
When the Civil War began, President Lincoln awarded his fellow Whig with an appointment as Secretary of State. Seward's activities during the war were questionable; he created a secret police force that arrested thousands of American citizens who Seward thought might instigate further rebellion in the Federal Union, especially in Maryland. It was through this police force that Lincoln gained criticism for suspending habeas corpus, or the right for a citizen to hear why he or she has been imprisoned and what the charges are.
On April 9, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth. That same night, a co-conspirator sneaked into Seward's house and stabbed him numerous times. Seward survived, and continued to serve as Secretary of State until 1869.
Seward died in 1872. If he had lived long enough, he would have had the last laugh about Alaska: Nearly a quarter century after his death, gold was discovered in Alaska, in 1896.
Sources: Wikipedia, Wikipedia
Wednesday, March 29, 2006
The Beginning of the End
It was one hundred forty-one years ago today that the final major campaign of the American Civil War began. A horrific tragedy, the Civil War cost over 600,000 lives, as well as the life of an American President.
On March 29, 1865, Union General Ulysses S. Grant began to maneuver around the Confederate General Robert E. Lee's forces, entrenched at Petersburg, VA. Lee's men were forced to abandon the city and began a march westward, hoping to join up with General Joseph E. Johnston's forces in North Carolina and to get supplies for his army. Lee's army never made it.
Lee began moving, with General Grant in hot pursuit. Grant's objective was to keep the pressure on Lee's already battered forces, hoping to get them in a position to force a surrender. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was the majority of the Confederacy's military forces, and a surrender from it would effectively be a surrender of the Confederacy.
Lee's men, rigorously chased by a relentless General Grant, traveled next through Amelia County, stopping at Jetersville, where Lee nearly decided to engage Grant's men in a final battle. Lee realized that he had one last chance to divide and conquer Grant's men; Grant had sent part of his force ahead of the main army, and Lee felt that his troops could take this force on. However, another Confederate officer convinced him that the odds of success were not in his favor. Indeed, the timing was off by a few hours, and if Lee had gone through, he would have met both a much stronger Union force than he would have wanted.
Lee's army made it to Rice, VA, located in Prince Edward County. On the night of April 5, General Grant and his men camped at Nottoway Court House, and Grant spent the night in the oldest church in the county, Old Brick Church. A Union force was sent ahead of Grant's main army, and it engaged in skirmishes at High Bridge, a railroad bridge that was a key entrance to the town of Farmville. Lee's men fought savagely to keep the railroad under their control. Meanwhile, Confederate General James Longstreet fought a small Union force at Rice's Depot.
On April 6, Union General Sheridan's forces cut off Confederate General Ewell's forces near Sailor's (or Sayler's) Creek. The ensuing battle was among the bloodiest of the war, with nearly 10,000 men total injured or killed. Reports from the aftermath say that the creek ran red with blood. The most vicious fighting of the battle occurred at Marshall's Crossroads and near the Hillsman House, an eighteenth century house that was used as a Union hospital.
Among the officers at Sayler's Creek were Union Generals Philip Sheridan and George A. Custer. Grant himself was still in Nottoway County. The most valiant fighting on the part of the Confederates came from an unlikely source: Naval Commander John R. Tucker and his men were present at Sailor's Creek, and they held their ground longer than the Confederate infantry before surrendering. The Confederates fared terribly, losing numerous supply wagons, artillery pieces, and men. The Confederate commander during the battle, Richard S. Ewell, surrendered, and a large portion of Lee's army was taken prisoner. Lee himself said after the battle, "My God! Has the army dissolved?" (CWSAC Battle Summary for the Battle of Sailor's Creek)
Lee's forces, whipped terribly and much smaller than they once were, staggered one county westward, making it to Appomattox Court House, where Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9. General Johnston surrendered to Union General William T. Sherman on April 26. For all intents and purposes, the war was over, though there were skirmishes in the South until late May, when Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendered in Texas.
Sources: The History Channel Website, Wikipedia, CWSAC Battle Summaries, Virginia State Historical Markers
Other Websites: Sailor's Creek State Park
On March 29, 1865, Union General Ulysses S. Grant began to maneuver around the Confederate General Robert E. Lee's forces, entrenched at Petersburg, VA. Lee's men were forced to abandon the city and began a march westward, hoping to join up with General Joseph E. Johnston's forces in North Carolina and to get supplies for his army. Lee's army never made it.
Lee became bogged down in Dinwiddie County, where several battles occurred: Lewis' Farm, White Oak Road, and Dinwiddie Court House. The culminating battle was at Five Forks (April 1, 1865), where Union General Philip H. Sheridan defeated Confederate General George E. Pickett. The Confederates suffered a humiliating defeat, and Wikipedia relates General Pickett's role in the battle: "Pickett's unfortunate military career suffered another humiliation—he was two miles away from his troops at the time of the attack, enjoying a shad bake with some other officers. By the time he returned to the battlefield, it was too late" (Wikipedia). On April 2, the Siege of Petersburg ended, with the Confederate trench lines finally giving way to a concentrated Union assault.
Lee began moving, with General Grant in hot pursuit. Grant's objective was to keep the pressure on Lee's already battered forces, hoping to get them in a position to force a surrender. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was the majority of the Confederacy's military forces, and a surrender from it would effectively be a surrender of the Confederacy.
Lee's men, rigorously chased by a relentless General Grant, traveled next through Amelia County, stopping at Jetersville, where Lee nearly decided to engage Grant's men in a final battle. Lee realized that he had one last chance to divide and conquer Grant's men; Grant had sent part of his force ahead of the main army, and Lee felt that his troops could take this force on. However, another Confederate officer convinced him that the odds of success were not in his favor. Indeed, the timing was off by a few hours, and if Lee had gone through, he would have met both a much stronger Union force than he would have wanted.
Lee's army made it to Rice, VA, located in Prince Edward County. On the night of April 5, General Grant and his men camped at Nottoway Court House, and Grant spent the night in the oldest church in the county, Old Brick Church. A Union force was sent ahead of Grant's main army, and it engaged in skirmishes at High Bridge, a railroad bridge that was a key entrance to the town of Farmville. Lee's men fought savagely to keep the railroad under their control. Meanwhile, Confederate General James Longstreet fought a small Union force at Rice's Depot.
On April 6, Union General Sheridan's forces cut off Confederate General Ewell's forces near Sailor's (or Sayler's) Creek. The ensuing battle was among the bloodiest of the war, with nearly 10,000 men total injured or killed. Reports from the aftermath say that the creek ran red with blood. The most vicious fighting of the battle occurred at Marshall's Crossroads and near the Hillsman House, an eighteenth century house that was used as a Union hospital.
Among the officers at Sayler's Creek were Union Generals Philip Sheridan and George A. Custer. Grant himself was still in Nottoway County. The most valiant fighting on the part of the Confederates came from an unlikely source: Naval Commander John R. Tucker and his men were present at Sailor's Creek, and they held their ground longer than the Confederate infantry before surrendering. The Confederates fared terribly, losing numerous supply wagons, artillery pieces, and men. The Confederate commander during the battle, Richard S. Ewell, surrendered, and a large portion of Lee's army was taken prisoner. Lee himself said after the battle, "My God! Has the army dissolved?" (CWSAC Battle Summary for the Battle of Sailor's Creek)
Lee's forces, whipped terribly and much smaller than they once were, staggered one county westward, making it to Appomattox Court House, where Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9. General Johnston surrendered to Union General William T. Sherman on April 26. For all intents and purposes, the war was over, though there were skirmishes in the South until late May, when Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendered in Texas.
Sources: The History Channel Website, Wikipedia, CWSAC Battle Summaries, Virginia State Historical Markers
Other Websites: Sailor's Creek State Park
Tuesday, March 28, 2006
Aristide Briand (1862 - 1932)
Today marks the 144th birthday of French statesman Aristide Briand. Born March 28, 1862, Briand made a name for himself during the first quarter of the 20th Century.
Born in France, Briand studied law and joined the Socialist Party. He became a member of the French Chamber of Deputies and was a creator of the a law that further strengthened the separation of church and state in France, in 1905. He was kicked out of the Socialist Party for accepting a Cabinet position with a rival party.
Briand was premier of France eleven times, beginning in 1909. A premier is the French Prime Minister. During the First World War, Briand decided that the line at Verdun needed to be held together against the German onslaught at all costs. Briand lost his position in 1917 when Georges Clemenceau attacked him for planning to negotiate peace with the Germans. Clemenceau took over, and Briand retired from public life, only to return in 1921 as premier once more.
Briand's leadership in 1921 did not last long, because he was unpopular for criticizing the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles; he advocated lessening the harsh penalties Germany faced, which in hindsight was a wise thing to do. In 1925, Briand resurfaced as France's foreign minister, helping create both the the Locarno Pact of 1925 and Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928. The former guaranteed the national borders set up in 1919 at Versailles, and it promised Germany a place in the League of Nations. The latter is famous for denouncing war as an international political instrument, advocating peaceful solutions to conflicts. For the Locarno Pact, Aristide Briand shared the Nobel Peace Price of 1926 with German leader Gustav Stresemann.
Briand died in 1932, at the age of nearly 70. Today, he is best remembered for his support of peaceful resolutions to conflicts, his pacifistic ideals, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact that bears his name, which failed in its objective a mere 11 years after its creation.
Sources: Columbia Encyclopedia, Wikipedia
Born in France, Briand studied law and joined the Socialist Party. He became a member of the French Chamber of Deputies and was a creator of the a law that further strengthened the separation of church and state in France, in 1905. He was kicked out of the Socialist Party for accepting a Cabinet position with a rival party.
Briand was premier of France eleven times, beginning in 1909. A premier is the French Prime Minister. During the First World War, Briand decided that the line at Verdun needed to be held together against the German onslaught at all costs. Briand lost his position in 1917 when Georges Clemenceau attacked him for planning to negotiate peace with the Germans. Clemenceau took over, and Briand retired from public life, only to return in 1921 as premier once more.
Briand's leadership in 1921 did not last long, because he was unpopular for criticizing the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles; he advocated lessening the harsh penalties Germany faced, which in hindsight was a wise thing to do. In 1925, Briand resurfaced as France's foreign minister, helping create both the the Locarno Pact of 1925 and Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928. The former guaranteed the national borders set up in 1919 at Versailles, and it promised Germany a place in the League of Nations. The latter is famous for denouncing war as an international political instrument, advocating peaceful solutions to conflicts. For the Locarno Pact, Aristide Briand shared the Nobel Peace Price of 1926 with German leader Gustav Stresemann.
Briand died in 1932, at the age of nearly 70. Today, he is best remembered for his support of peaceful resolutions to conflicts, his pacifistic ideals, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact that bears his name, which failed in its objective a mere 11 years after its creation.
Sources: Columbia Encyclopedia, Wikipedia
Monday, March 27, 2006
A Modern Crusade?
War Profile: Crimean War (1854 - 1855)
During the year 1850 in Europe, tensions were high. Two years earlier, revolutions had broken out in France, Prussia, and the Austrian Empire. The conservatives (pro-monarchists) wanted to keep the status quo of the previous 35 years, set up by the Congress of Vienna. But there was one big problem: Russia.
Emperor Louis Napoleon III, of France, was itching for a war. He craved the glory that his near-mythical uncle had gained. France had been under a watchful eye since Napoleon Bonaparte's final defeat in 1815, and thus it was severely weakened. Napoleon III wanted to bring France back to the European forefront as a key power.
Napoleon III set his eyes on Russia, which was perceived as a threat by the rest of Europe. The enormous nation was expanding rapidly, and the Ottoman Empire was threatened by this expansion; the Ottomans had long been Europe's tolerable neighbors, too weak to pose a threat to European sovereignty. But, if the Ottomans fell to Russia, the balance of power in Europe would be in jeopardy.
When Catherine the Great severely beat the Ottomans in skirmishes, Frederick the Great of Prussia avoided an all-out European war by averting attention on Poland, partitioning it between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. This occurred during the late 1700s.
Now Louis Napoleon III saw a chance to pick a fight with a nation that was loathed by the rest of Europe. He could turn the negative spotlight off of France and make it look like France cared for the well-being of the Continent.
Napoleon's reasons for going to war were political, but he masked them with religion. Russia had long been the protector of the Eastern Orthodox religion, and France had been the self-proclaimed protector of Roman Catholicism. If the Ottoman Empire fell to Russia, Russia would have influence over the Holy Lands and thus curtail Roman Catholic interests.
The Ottomans placed the Holy Lands under French control in 1851, angering the Russians, who agitated a war by claiming Eastern Orthodox citizens of the Ottoman Empire were being oppressed. Russia immediately seized the Ottoman territories of Wallachia and Moldavia. War erupted between the Ottoman Empire and Russia; the Ottomans were helped by the geography (Russia had to have access to three straits to reach the Mediterranean), but the Russian navy appeared to be winning.
Britain had long been concerned with keeping Russia out of the Mediterranean. Britain had interests there, as the Mediterranean was Britain's easiest access to its colony in India. Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire formed an alliance against Russia, which promptly claimed that the war was an accident and placed Wallachia and Moldavia under the control of Austria, a neutral nation throughout the conflict.
The Crimean War started in 1854, with the goal of weakening Russia's presence in the Black Sea. Britain and France formed a naval blockade of Russian bases on the Crimean peninsula, but the water around Crimea was too shallow for the large military vessels. An invasion was needed. The main points of the war was the siege of Sevastopol, where the British and French besieged the Russians at that city. One in ten soldiers sent to Crimea actually made it there alive. Russia, as well as the allies, suffered enormous casualties. Russia itself lost millions of soldiers.
The war was a sad affair, poorly conducted by all sides. The French commander was incompetent, and the British commander Lord Raglan (an aid to Wellington in 1815) was senile (at a meeting with French officers, he exclaimed that they were going to beat the French). Raglan would die of disease at Sevastopol. Disease was the main killer of soldiers during the Crimean War. The British Charge of the Light Brigade, celebrated by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, was a result of military incompentence.
Sevastopol fell in September 1855, and Austria threatened to enter the war for the allies, so Russia cried uncle. The Treaty of Paris of 1856 left everyone feeling cheated: Russia gave up its claims over the Holy Land and gave up the Black Sea bases. The 39 years of peace established by the Congress of Vienna ended, and distrust arose among the major European nations.
The sole winner in the war was Piedmont and Sardinia, a small nation led by Count Camillo Cavour (later to gain prominence in Italian unification). They entered the war despite having no stake in it, and gained the trust of the European allies. At the post-war negotiations, Piedmont and Sardinia gained little territory, but it did get Britain and France's indebtedness and goodwill.
The biggest loser was neutral Austria, which was alienated by the angry allies, who felt Austria should have helped them. Russia was left with a bad taste in its mouth concerning Austria. Thus, Austria had no friends in Europe after the war, having lost all of Europe's goodwill.
France became isolated, and gained the suspicion of Britain. Napoleon III did get his wish: France was once again a preeminent European power. Britain's government suffered from the fiasco at Crimea: public opinion was very negative due to battlefield photographers, who captured the horrors of war on film.
The only positive outcome of the war was in the future of Italy. Piedmont and Sardinia, under clever Cavour, would lead the way to Italian unification in 1861.
Source: Lecture by Dr. Ralph S. Hattox, Elliott Professor of History at Hampden-Sydney College, Wikipedia
During the year 1850 in Europe, tensions were high. Two years earlier, revolutions had broken out in France, Prussia, and the Austrian Empire. The conservatives (pro-monarchists) wanted to keep the status quo of the previous 35 years, set up by the Congress of Vienna. But there was one big problem: Russia.
Emperor Louis Napoleon III, of France, was itching for a war. He craved the glory that his near-mythical uncle had gained. France had been under a watchful eye since Napoleon Bonaparte's final defeat in 1815, and thus it was severely weakened. Napoleon III wanted to bring France back to the European forefront as a key power.
Napoleon III set his eyes on Russia, which was perceived as a threat by the rest of Europe. The enormous nation was expanding rapidly, and the Ottoman Empire was threatened by this expansion; the Ottomans had long been Europe's tolerable neighbors, too weak to pose a threat to European sovereignty. But, if the Ottomans fell to Russia, the balance of power in Europe would be in jeopardy.
When Catherine the Great severely beat the Ottomans in skirmishes, Frederick the Great of Prussia avoided an all-out European war by averting attention on Poland, partitioning it between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. This occurred during the late 1700s.
Now Louis Napoleon III saw a chance to pick a fight with a nation that was loathed by the rest of Europe. He could turn the negative spotlight off of France and make it look like France cared for the well-being of the Continent.
Napoleon's reasons for going to war were political, but he masked them with religion. Russia had long been the protector of the Eastern Orthodox religion, and France had been the self-proclaimed protector of Roman Catholicism. If the Ottoman Empire fell to Russia, Russia would have influence over the Holy Lands and thus curtail Roman Catholic interests.
The Ottomans placed the Holy Lands under French control in 1851, angering the Russians, who agitated a war by claiming Eastern Orthodox citizens of the Ottoman Empire were being oppressed. Russia immediately seized the Ottoman territories of Wallachia and Moldavia. War erupted between the Ottoman Empire and Russia; the Ottomans were helped by the geography (Russia had to have access to three straits to reach the Mediterranean), but the Russian navy appeared to be winning.
Britain had long been concerned with keeping Russia out of the Mediterranean. Britain had interests there, as the Mediterranean was Britain's easiest access to its colony in India. Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire formed an alliance against Russia, which promptly claimed that the war was an accident and placed Wallachia and Moldavia under the control of Austria, a neutral nation throughout the conflict.
The Crimean War started in 1854, with the goal of weakening Russia's presence in the Black Sea. Britain and France formed a naval blockade of Russian bases on the Crimean peninsula, but the water around Crimea was too shallow for the large military vessels. An invasion was needed. The main points of the war was the siege of Sevastopol, where the British and French besieged the Russians at that city. One in ten soldiers sent to Crimea actually made it there alive. Russia, as well as the allies, suffered enormous casualties. Russia itself lost millions of soldiers.
The war was a sad affair, poorly conducted by all sides. The French commander was incompetent, and the British commander Lord Raglan (an aid to Wellington in 1815) was senile (at a meeting with French officers, he exclaimed that they were going to beat the French). Raglan would die of disease at Sevastopol. Disease was the main killer of soldiers during the Crimean War. The British Charge of the Light Brigade, celebrated by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, was a result of military incompentence.
Sevastopol fell in September 1855, and Austria threatened to enter the war for the allies, so Russia cried uncle. The Treaty of Paris of 1856 left everyone feeling cheated: Russia gave up its claims over the Holy Land and gave up the Black Sea bases. The 39 years of peace established by the Congress of Vienna ended, and distrust arose among the major European nations.
The sole winner in the war was Piedmont and Sardinia, a small nation led by Count Camillo Cavour (later to gain prominence in Italian unification). They entered the war despite having no stake in it, and gained the trust of the European allies. At the post-war negotiations, Piedmont and Sardinia gained little territory, but it did get Britain and France's indebtedness and goodwill.
The biggest loser was neutral Austria, which was alienated by the angry allies, who felt Austria should have helped them. Russia was left with a bad taste in its mouth concerning Austria. Thus, Austria had no friends in Europe after the war, having lost all of Europe's goodwill.
France became isolated, and gained the suspicion of Britain. Napoleon III did get his wish: France was once again a preeminent European power. Britain's government suffered from the fiasco at Crimea: public opinion was very negative due to battlefield photographers, who captured the horrors of war on film.
The only positive outcome of the war was in the future of Italy. Piedmont and Sardinia, under clever Cavour, would lead the way to Italian unification in 1861.
Source: Lecture by Dr. Ralph S. Hattox, Elliott Professor of History at Hampden-Sydney College, Wikipedia
Keeping Hauss
One hundred ninety-seven years ago today, on March 27, 1809, Georges Haussman was born. A footnote figure in history today, he was responsible for improving the layout of Paris.
A Frenchman, Haussman was an architect. He was hired by Napoleon III of France to improve the French capital. Paris had become quite disorderly, and it was poorly planned out; also, Napoleon III dreamed of bringing glory to both himself and to France (he always seemed to be living in the shadow of his legendary uncle), and felt that revamping the layout of Paris would bring him great acclaim. Haussman requested that entire blocks of the city betorn down, and he replaced them with newer public buildings, large open areas for monuments, and parks. Parisian streets were given lights and benches, and the sewer system was improved drastically.
Perhaps the key change that Haussman brought to Paris was in the layout of the streets. The roads had long been too narrow, so Haussman had them widened. The medieval streets, which were crooked and curvy, were straightened. According to Wikipedia, "There are two views of Baron Haussmann: One depicts him as the man who destroyed Old Paris, and the other as the man who created New Paris."
Haussman lived to the age of 81, dying in 1891. His legacy is tremendous, though his name is not remembered widely today. Had it not been for Baron Haussman, the modern city of romance we know as Paris might be much different.
Sources: InfoPlease, Wikipedia, Freeway
A Frenchman, Haussman was an architect. He was hired by Napoleon III of France to improve the French capital. Paris had become quite disorderly, and it was poorly planned out; also, Napoleon III dreamed of bringing glory to both himself and to France (he always seemed to be living in the shadow of his legendary uncle), and felt that revamping the layout of Paris would bring him great acclaim. Haussman requested that entire blocks of the city betorn down, and he replaced them with newer public buildings, large open areas for monuments, and parks. Parisian streets were given lights and benches, and the sewer system was improved drastically.
Perhaps the key change that Haussman brought to Paris was in the layout of the streets. The roads had long been too narrow, so Haussman had them widened. The medieval streets, which were crooked and curvy, were straightened. According to Wikipedia, "There are two views of Baron Haussmann: One depicts him as the man who destroyed Old Paris, and the other as the man who created New Paris."
Haussman lived to the age of 81, dying in 1891. His legacy is tremendous, though his name is not remembered widely today. Had it not been for Baron Haussman, the modern city of romance we know as Paris might be much different.
Sources: InfoPlease, Wikipedia, Freeway
Sunday, March 26, 2006
The Legend of Jim Bowie
One-hundred seventy years ago this month, James Bowie was killed during the Battle of the Alamo. His legend lives on in and his name was given to a special type of knife that he supposedly designed.
James Bowie was born about 1796 in Logan County, Kentucky. He wound up in Louisiana, bought a plantation, and served in the state legislature. He rose from a frontier family to become a well-known public figure.
Bowie got into trouble after allegedly killing a man in a duel and fled to Texas. He gained the favor of high-ranking Mexican officials in Texas, but after Mexico began making laws that upset the growing number of American immigrants living in Mexico, Jim Bowie joined the American opposition to Mexico in Texas. He joined the Texan army and served under William Barrett Travis.
Bowie gained fame fighting in several battles, but ended up with Travis besieged at the Alamo, an antiquarian Mexican mission. Facing a force anywhere from 10 to 32 times larger than themselves, the Texans stood not a chance against the Mexican onslaught under General Santa Anna. Bowie met his death along with 182 other Texans on March 6, 1836. Bowie was severely ill at the time, confined to a cot, so was unable to help his comrades inflict massive casualties on Santa Anna's army (600-1,600).
Legends of Bowie's prowess with his vicious personalized knife are still told today. Bowie was feared for his remarkable skill with it, and defended himself with it several times.
Sources: Encylopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Handbook of Texas Online
James Bowie was born about 1796 in Logan County, Kentucky. He wound up in Louisiana, bought a plantation, and served in the state legislature. He rose from a frontier family to become a well-known public figure.
Bowie got into trouble after allegedly killing a man in a duel and fled to Texas. He gained the favor of high-ranking Mexican officials in Texas, but after Mexico began making laws that upset the growing number of American immigrants living in Mexico, Jim Bowie joined the American opposition to Mexico in Texas. He joined the Texan army and served under William Barrett Travis.
Bowie gained fame fighting in several battles, but ended up with Travis besieged at the Alamo, an antiquarian Mexican mission. Facing a force anywhere from 10 to 32 times larger than themselves, the Texans stood not a chance against the Mexican onslaught under General Santa Anna. Bowie met his death along with 182 other Texans on March 6, 1836. Bowie was severely ill at the time, confined to a cot, so was unable to help his comrades inflict massive casualties on Santa Anna's army (600-1,600).
Legends of Bowie's prowess with his vicious personalized knife are still told today. Bowie was feared for his remarkable skill with it, and defended himself with it several times.
Sources: Encylopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Handbook of Texas Online
Saturday, March 25, 2006
A Toast to Family
I am related to only two influential people that I know of, one of whom was the late actor Don Knotts. It is fitting that I should write about the other, as his place in history is quite important. However, very few people today have ever heard of him.
Born in Goochland County, VA on September 4, 1793, Edward Bates was a descendant of a Jamestown immigrant. His father was a well-to-do Quaker soldier during the American Revolution who was kicked out of the Society of Friends for owning slaves and for fighting in the war. He had two other famous brothers: Frederick Bates (1777-1825), a Michigan State Supreme Court Justice and the second Governor of the state of Missouri, and James Woodson Bates (1788-1846), an influential shaper of the state of Arkansas and a delegate for Arkanas in the U.S. Congress. Batesville, Arkansas is named in honor of James.
Edward studied law and moved to Missouri at the age of 21. He entered politics, serving in state legislatures and the House of Representatives. He was a Whig, opposed to the policies of Andrew Jackson.
Bates was one of the most prominent Whigs of his day, presiding over the 1856 Whig Convention. The Whig Party was dying at this point, so Bates jumped to the new party, the Republicans.
Bates campaigned for the Republican presidential candidacy in 1860, but lost out to Lincoln. When Lincoln was elected, he offered his former opponent a Cabinet post. This was a wise move, for Lincoln wanted a Cabinet that would include Southerners. Bates chose to be Lincoln's Attorney General, putting his law background to good use.
Bates owned slaves, but he granted them their freedom. He was a free-soil advocate, but not as strong a slavery opponent as Salmon P. Chase and others in Lincoln's Cabinet. Also, "he opposed the admission of West Virginia as a state, the subjugation of constitutional rights to military control, and the increasing power of the Radical Republicans" (Encyclopaedia Britannica). This caused him to be alienated from the rest of the Cabinet, and as a result Bates had little authority or say in the President's decisions. He resigned his post in 1864, having served three years and through most of the American Civil War.
Edward Bates lived for five more years, writing against Radical Republicans who wanted to punish the South. Bates died 137 years ago today, on March 25, 1869.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia, The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Born in Goochland County, VA on September 4, 1793, Edward Bates was a descendant of a Jamestown immigrant. His father was a well-to-do Quaker soldier during the American Revolution who was kicked out of the Society of Friends for owning slaves and for fighting in the war. He had two other famous brothers: Frederick Bates (1777-1825), a Michigan State Supreme Court Justice and the second Governor of the state of Missouri, and James Woodson Bates (1788-1846), an influential shaper of the state of Arkansas and a delegate for Arkanas in the U.S. Congress. Batesville, Arkansas is named in honor of James.
Edward studied law and moved to Missouri at the age of 21. He entered politics, serving in state legislatures and the House of Representatives. He was a Whig, opposed to the policies of Andrew Jackson.
Bates was one of the most prominent Whigs of his day, presiding over the 1856 Whig Convention. The Whig Party was dying at this point, so Bates jumped to the new party, the Republicans.
Bates campaigned for the Republican presidential candidacy in 1860, but lost out to Lincoln. When Lincoln was elected, he offered his former opponent a Cabinet post. This was a wise move, for Lincoln wanted a Cabinet that would include Southerners. Bates chose to be Lincoln's Attorney General, putting his law background to good use.
Bates owned slaves, but he granted them their freedom. He was a free-soil advocate, but not as strong a slavery opponent as Salmon P. Chase and others in Lincoln's Cabinet. Also, "he opposed the admission of West Virginia as a state, the subjugation of constitutional rights to military control, and the increasing power of the Radical Republicans" (Encyclopaedia Britannica). This caused him to be alienated from the rest of the Cabinet, and as a result Bates had little authority or say in the President's decisions. He resigned his post in 1864, having served three years and through most of the American Civil War.
Edward Bates lived for five more years, writing against Radical Republicans who wanted to punish the South. Bates died 137 years ago today, on March 25, 1869.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia, The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Friday, March 24, 2006
Oom for Uncle
It has been over a century since Paul Kruger died. It is quite possible that you have never heard of him.
Kruger, born in 1825, was a Boer, a descendant of the Dutch settlers of South Africa. When a new republic was set up for the Afrikaners (another word for Boers), who had gained independence from Great Britain, Kruger helped form the constitution, in 1856-57 .
Later, the British took over again, and Kruger helped lead the struggle for reindependence. After a conflict between Great Britain and the Afrikaners, Kruger helped negotiate a treaty that promised limited independence for the Boers. He became president in 1883, and would remain so until 1902.
In several quarrels between Britain and South Africa, Kruger was often forced to concede to Britain. When British imperialism again threatened South Africa's borders, Kruger set an ultimatum for British troop withdrawal. War broke out in 1899, and the two capitals of the Boer republic were occupied by the British. Kruger was forced to flee the country, and he died in exile in Switzerland in 1904, at the age of 78.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Kruger, born in 1825, was a Boer, a descendant of the Dutch settlers of South Africa. When a new republic was set up for the Afrikaners (another word for Boers), who had gained independence from Great Britain, Kruger helped form the constitution, in 1856-57 .
Later, the British took over again, and Kruger helped lead the struggle for reindependence. After a conflict between Great Britain and the Afrikaners, Kruger helped negotiate a treaty that promised limited independence for the Boers. He became president in 1883, and would remain so until 1902.
In several quarrels between Britain and South Africa, Kruger was often forced to concede to Britain. When British imperialism again threatened South Africa's borders, Kruger set an ultimatum for British troop withdrawal. War broke out in 1899, and the two capitals of the Boer republic were occupied by the British. Kruger was forced to flee the country, and he died in exile in Switzerland in 1904, at the age of 78.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Thursday, March 23, 2006
The Mystery Man of Europe
If he were alive today, Sir Basil Zaharoff would be going on 156 years of age. Born in Turkey in 1850, Basil was of Russo-Greek stock. He began his career in financing, then rose up the ranks to become the director and CEO of Vickers, a weapons and ammunition company.
He was an unscrupulous businessman, sabotaging competitor Hiram Maxim's revolutionary Maxim gun when Maxim tried to demonstrate it at expositions. Later, Zaharoff would absorb Maxim's company and take his place on the company's board of directors.
World War I provided an excellent opportunity for Zaharoff to make money. He peddled his weapons to several countries, eventually selling exclusively to the Allies. After the war, Zaharoff was the richest man in Europe.
The King of Britain knighted him. France celebrated him as a hero. But Sir Basil Zaharoff's life was surrounded by an aura of mystery and intrigue. Many accused him of instigating conflicts with his vast wealth in order to sell his munitions. His relationship with several heads of state in Europe was also questioned, especially with Britain's Prime Minister David Lloyd George.
Zaharoff married at the age of 75, but outlived his bride. He spent his final years in solitude, a lonely and melancholy man. Zaharoff died in 1936. Despite all of the money Sir Basil had earned, he was unable to buy happiness in the end. Indeed, perhaps it is fitting, for his wealth was blood money, gained from the suffering of millions of soldiers that died as a result of his Vickers machine gun.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia
He was an unscrupulous businessman, sabotaging competitor Hiram Maxim's revolutionary Maxim gun when Maxim tried to demonstrate it at expositions. Later, Zaharoff would absorb Maxim's company and take his place on the company's board of directors.
World War I provided an excellent opportunity for Zaharoff to make money. He peddled his weapons to several countries, eventually selling exclusively to the Allies. After the war, Zaharoff was the richest man in Europe.
The King of Britain knighted him. France celebrated him as a hero. But Sir Basil Zaharoff's life was surrounded by an aura of mystery and intrigue. Many accused him of instigating conflicts with his vast wealth in order to sell his munitions. His relationship with several heads of state in Europe was also questioned, especially with Britain's Prime Minister David Lloyd George.
Zaharoff married at the age of 75, but outlived his bride. He spent his final years in solitude, a lonely and melancholy man. Zaharoff died in 1936. Despite all of the money Sir Basil had earned, he was unable to buy happiness in the end. Indeed, perhaps it is fitting, for his wealth was blood money, gained from the suffering of millions of soldiers that died as a result of his Vickers machine gun.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wikipedia
Do You Know This Guy?
Today marks the 148th birthday of Ludwig Quidde. Largely forgotten by most people today, he was a key opponent of war during the first quarter of the 1900s, and he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1927.
Quidde was a German, and he worked as a newspaper editor and professor. He published pamphlets promoting peace, and was the most well-known pacifist in the world during his time. He was active in German politics and held numerous positions in peace societies and legislative assemblies.
Quidde knew what it was like in prison, for he ended up there many times in his life. He was imprisoned for criticizing Kaiser Wilhelm II during World War I. Later, when Adolf Hitler rose to power, Quidde was forced to flee, settling in Switzerland until his death at nearly 84 years of age in 1941.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Quidde was a German, and he worked as a newspaper editor and professor. He published pamphlets promoting peace, and was the most well-known pacifist in the world during his time. He was active in German politics and held numerous positions in peace societies and legislative assemblies.
Quidde knew what it was like in prison, for he ended up there many times in his life. He was imprisoned for criticizing Kaiser Wilhelm II during World War I. Later, when Adolf Hitler rose to power, Quidde was forced to flee, settling in Switzerland until his death at nearly 84 years of age in 1941.
Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Wednesday, March 22, 2006
Forgotten War, Forgotten Hero
Have you ever heard of the Barbary Wars? How about the Tripolitan War? Didn't think so. The two conflicts were one and the same. During the early 1800s, the newly formed United States faced a problem that had been plaguing Europeans for over a century: the Barbary pirates. These pirates, Muslims from North Africa, made a living off of plundering European and American vessels that would get too close to the African coast. The pirates offered European nations and America protection from their plundering, but not without a price: those nations had to pay a tribute to the pirates. America did so, for a while.
In 1801, President Jefferson decided action was in order. America stopped paying the pirates, who promptly began capturing American commercial vessels. Jefferson sent the United States Navy to the Mediterranean in an attempt to check the resumed piracy. When one American military vessel, the Philadelphia, ran aground in Libya, the Muslims captured it and held it under guard. This was a serious issue for the Americans; they feared that the African pirates would use the Philadelphia as a model for building more up-to-date warships.
The date was February 16, 1804. A young Navy Lieutenant named Stephen Decatur led a disguised American force on a mission to retake the Philadelphia. In the ensuing battle, the battleship was destroyed, thus preventing the pirates from taking advantage of it. Decatur's force suffered only one injury in the raid, making Stephen Decatur the most celebrated American Naval Officer since Revolutionary War legend John Paul Jones. He became a national celebrity overnight, and was awarded with a promotion and decorations from Congress.
Today, this event of our nation's history is all but forgotten by most Americans. Even Stephen Decatur, much revered in his time, is well-known by only the most dedicated military historians. Decatur himself went on to gain greater acclaim during the War of 1812, but his story ended tragically. He died in a duel with a fellow naval officer 186 years ago today, March 22, 1820.
Sources: The History Channel Website, Encyclopaedia Britannica
In 1801, President Jefferson decided action was in order. America stopped paying the pirates, who promptly began capturing American commercial vessels. Jefferson sent the United States Navy to the Mediterranean in an attempt to check the resumed piracy. When one American military vessel, the Philadelphia, ran aground in Libya, the Muslims captured it and held it under guard. This was a serious issue for the Americans; they feared that the African pirates would use the Philadelphia as a model for building more up-to-date warships.
The date was February 16, 1804. A young Navy Lieutenant named Stephen Decatur led a disguised American force on a mission to retake the Philadelphia. In the ensuing battle, the battleship was destroyed, thus preventing the pirates from taking advantage of it. Decatur's force suffered only one injury in the raid, making Stephen Decatur the most celebrated American Naval Officer since Revolutionary War legend John Paul Jones. He became a national celebrity overnight, and was awarded with a promotion and decorations from Congress.
Today, this event of our nation's history is all but forgotten by most Americans. Even Stephen Decatur, much revered in his time, is well-known by only the most dedicated military historians. Decatur himself went on to gain greater acclaim during the War of 1812, but his story ended tragically. He died in a duel with a fellow naval officer 186 years ago today, March 22, 1820.
Sources: The History Channel Website, Encyclopaedia Britannica
Hello Folks!
Howdy to all! This is The Colonel here, and I am the Keeper of Time. I shall use this blog to analyze little-known historical events, forgotten or obscure, or I may even take a famous event and connect it with other events in ways that you may have never thought.
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